PART ONE

It’s a long time since I sailed an engineless, slow-in-stays, 27’ Montague Whaler single-handed, in light airs, up the River Itchen against wind and tide during the evening rush hour, trying to tack between the two ‘floating bridge’ chain ferries, huge weed-shrouded, dripping cables emerging from the water a few yards ahead, the other impatient monster already in motion astern, jeering cyclists and hooting motorists crowding the bow ends as yet again and again I fell off the wind to reach across the river, hoping to be able to make good the few vital yards while the cables fell slack astern until the start of the return trip.

I now sail a handier, if sometimes slower dinghy, but I still have a respect for commercial traffic which was so slowly and dangerously won, and reflect in wonderment at my survival of many equally perilous incidents. Fortunately they became fewer as I learned. I hope this guide will help those beginners, wiser or more nervous than I, who worry about encounters with the ‘big stuff’.

It comes in all shapes and sizes, from rusty tugs and lighters to towering car transporters and empty oil tankers. Unless you are very lucky, none of it is going to get out of your way, even if it sees you! You might get 4 or 5 or more short blasts on its hooter if it considers you to be at risk (the days are largely gone when a friendly coaster skipper steps out from his bridge-house to call down to a speck on dusky Southampton Water, “You’ll get run down old son, out here with no lights on!”). To be the recipient of one set of blasts is not total ignominy, merely a somewhat one-sided rebuke; to receive a second set 20 seconds later is!

Out at sea, miles from anywhere, most of the big stuff goes at least 3 or 4 times as fast as you, fairly straight. As far as I know, the only sure way to decide if a collision risk exists is to take a compass bearing of the vessel at short intervals. No allowance for variation or deviation is required, but if it is rough, then a mean from the swing of the card should be read. If the bearing does not alter several degrees consistently in direction with each reading, there is a collision risk.

In more confined waters, large vessels under way will usually be progressing up or down a channel defined by buoys or other marks. Have a chart showing these channels! Channels also come in all shapes and sizes. The very smallest allow large vessels only one way at a time. The Fishbourne (Wootton) channel on the Isle of Wight is a fair example. At low water a dinghy 5 yards the other side of the piles marking the channel nearest the terminal can be set aground as the ferry pushes water ahead of it and your water rushes away to fill the channel behind it! Better to wait until the ferry is discharging passengers and complete one’s passage while the channel is free.

A busy but broader channel such as Southampton Water usually allows two-way traffic. The rule for vessels approaching one another head-on calls for each to alter course to starboard, passing one another port side to port side. Remembering this can help one when confused by the presence of more than one vessel.

Generally channels of this nature have room on one or both sides for dinghies, even to tack if necessary. Study your chart! Southampton Water has a dredged main channel marked principally by large buoys. On its eastern side there is a lesser channel marked by un-lighted ‘blind’ buoys showing the three fathom line. At high tide surprisingly large vessels occasionally use this channel, so maintain a good look-out all round.

Vessels sometimes manoeuvre across channels; generally they will be moving slower than usual, possibly accompanied by tugs, and will announce their intentions by short blasts. Learn their meaning and predict their course!

Examples of the largest confined channels are the Thames Estuary and the Solent. Both serve more than one port and have large expanses of apparently open water where ships change course for no obvious reason. Hidden shallows can force deep draught vessels from their desired course, e.g. a vessel leaving Southampton bound for Portsmouth or the Nab may turn right at Calshot, at the entrance to Southampton Water, then make two left hand turns and turn right again in less than 10 minutes. A study of the chart can help you predict such a course.

Your safest course is to use water to one side or the other of the channel, avoiding the very shallowest parts on which even you can ground! In Part Two of this guide I shall give you a ‘Rule of Thumb’ to help you use busy waters with more confidence without forever taking bearings. In the meantime, here is a tip to help you:

To Cross a Busy Channel

If you have to cross a busy channel and you know that the tide flows generally along it, the shortest route is to sail a course at right angles to the channel, without making allowance for the tide. You will be down-tide by the time you are across, but you will have crossed by the shortest route. Only if by sailing a freer course you can very considerably increase your speed will any other course be quicker. Start when the channel seems clear.

fig 1

Problem: Does this rule hold good for other, rarer, tide conditions?

PART TWO

The presence of the tug came as a surprise to me. The close approach of the black hulk of the lighter had been obvious for a short while, but Fern was going well enough at 5 knots on the port tack, and armed with my newly won knowledge of ‘how the land grows’ I felt she would pass ahead.

A lull in the wind and Fern faltered. The lighter’s bow wave was noticeable now as I bore away to increase speed. The course change brought us closer, but I was still confident, a confidence not wholly shared by the crew of the tug which was lashed to the starboard side of its tow, some way abaft the bow. They stared in disbelief only exceeded by mine as Fern slipped across the first bow wave, only to meet an extra 5 yards or more of width not allowed for by her skipper. I suppose that standing at the wheel they had some sort of view over the lighter, but I had not noticed the wheel-house roof along the low outline of the lighter hatches.

A close encounter which could only too easily have been of the last kind. But how close should one go? Also, can one be mislead by the way the land ‘grows’? The answer to the second question is explained by fig 3. The answer to the first depends on so many factors; some will have to be assumed:

Good daylight visibility Ability to manoeuvre Fair speed — say half to top Steady course of both vessels

and a willingness to give a larger berth to larger vessels. The first three depend to some extent on the weather; if you cannot accept the fifth, I cannot help you. Now for the Rule of Thumb promised in Part One.

Stick your arm out straight from the shoulder, preferably more to the side than before your chest, and cock your thumb up. Hopefully its nail will be facing you: it (the nail) is probably about half as long as from nail tip to knuckle; the knuckle again marks about half the thumb length. The clear nail tip varies in length and clarity from person to person but most dinghy cruisers will find that much more than 20% of nail length for this portion does not last long! By holding out the thumb in this manner we have an even cheaper method of measuring apparent heights than I gave in Bulletin no. 78; let’s use it on ships. Measure the height from water to bridge-house roof, which is usually the highest large superstructure:

fig 2

You will probably notice a vessel on the horizon by the time it has an apparent size of about half of your clear nail tip, earlier if it is beam-on to you. If it is getting closer it will appear to get bigger and clearer. When it seems as big as your nail tip, note the time and take a general interest in the vessel. Where is it going? (Part One q.v.) When it seems twice as big as your nail tip (this entails a little guess work) note the time again. In as many minutes as you have measured, the vessel will be at its nearest to you! By the time the vessel is as big as half of your thumb nail, you should be observing it very attentively. You will have already noticed the masts; all but the smallest ships have two, the shorter one at the front.

The ship will be moving from the tall mast towards the short one. You will find this information particularly valuable at night (Part Three q.v.). If the short mast appears to the left of the taller as you look at it, the ship will be moving to your left. If the vessel remains on the same bearing for any time it is a collision risk. Very likely your course will waver so you will only be able to guess this well during the occasions when you are on course, unless you use a hand-bearing compass. DO NOT DESPAIR: A very good guide can be had from the vessel’s masts: if the gap between them appears to close and the rate at which it does so increases as the gap lessens, you are probably going to pass ahead of the vessel. Obviously as the vessel approaches the apparent gap will become clearer, so you will have to judge whether it is closing or not by comparing it with the height or bulk of the vessel. This is easy.

Of course, as the aspect of the vessel changes towards bow-on, there could also be a collision risk. I wash my hands of anyone daft enough to crash into the stern or side of a ship; any collision is likely to be at the front end. I have read that the bow wave of a large vessel at speed is powerful enough to cast aside baulks of timber and would probably do the same to a small boat. I don’t know anything about this! Anyway, really large ships are not usually going at top speed in a confined channel.

If you are on a collision course and have been seen, you might get hooted at any time after half nail size, depending on their assessment. They are probably better qualified and have less confidence in your boat than you. From thumb size upwards someone will be shouting. If you get hooted at, DO NOT TRY TO PASS AHEAD! When you are trying to pass ahead and it becomes uncertain — masts not closing quickly enough — abandon the attempt at ¾ nail size: any closer and safety margins quickly disappear if you miss stays or have to luff for a gust or whatever.

You will now have to cross the vessel’s track under its stern. If it was a yacht you would probably go under its stern as close as you could — DO NOT DO THIS! Something between nail and knuckle size is close enough for starters; you will definitely notice the wash at this size. Sail away from the vessel’s track or make another distinct change of course which will not bring you closer than this.

If you are progressing along the same channel as the vessel and ignore the advice given in Part One, the vessel will be more or less bow-on at half nail size. Unless you are having to tack, try to keep the masts open on the same side until the ship has passed you, and do not allow yourself to approach to larger than knuckle size. You will notice the wash. Do not imitate yachts which get closer than this when on a parallel course with ships. If you are tacking, try to time one which will take you away from the vessel at about ¾ nail size, and do not adopt a long board on the old tack until you are sure you can go under her stern by, at most, knuckle size. If you wait later to tack away, you could be in serious trouble if you miss stays. When tacking along a channel, you leave a vessel’s track at a reduced rate.

As you approach the buoy, the feature noted on the land horizon at point 7b, where the buoy seems to divide it, will appear to slide to the left of the division point of the horizon as you progress. You will pass to the left of the buoy. The land will ‘grow’ more quickly as you close to. DON’T FORGET THE TRANSOM!

How the land grows in not an immediately clear guide for clearing moving objects. Points 5s to 2s would indicate passing behind the vessel. Not until you are too close does it start to grow the other way. If a ship is moving only five times as fast as you, you will, at best, clear its screws by one fifth of the distance by which you passed clear ahead!

The ship divides the horizon at point 5s, but the land does not start to ‘grow’ the correct way until after point 2s. THIS COULD BE TOO CLOSE. In confined channels the land horizon is often too near to be an early enough guide. DO NOT USE THIS METHOD FOR SHIPS UNDER WAY.

fig 3

You should be getting the Rule of Thumb idea by now, so let’s look at some collision risks judged by:

The aspect of the ship, beam-on, bow-on, etc. Your track; usually your heading will do. Change in apparent size of the ship.

It is safest to follow the advice in Part One; however, a vessel which appears stern-on or largely so, yet increases slowly in apparent size is very probably at anchor and represents little risk. How the land grows will help if it is anchored.

A vessel which appears beam-on at twice nail tip size is also only a slight risk, but one to keep your eye on! Its aspect might change; its bearing might not! The gap between the masts is a good thing to note (I hope you also noted the time).

The biggest risk comes from vessels showing some bow, say 45º or sharper. Do you remember how a vessel with the short mast to the left is going to the left as you look at it? Good: What is it doing at twice nail tip size? Is it going to keep on doing it?

A vessel to the right of your track, showing bow and heading to your left as you look at it is a possible risk. It must cross your track. You must watch it very carefully. By the time it is half nail size you should have some idea where to go if a change of course is necessary, and unless the mast gap is closing quickly you should forget about crossing ahead. Of course, the gap might not close; if it opens the risk lessens, but don’t allow yourself to approach closer than knuckle size. When the gap has closed and opened again the other side you have passed ahead. Generally speaking this is easier to achieve when a vessel is on your beam as the mast gap closes; you will be crossing the vessel’s track at your best speed. Never change course in order to pass ahead; the wind might drop; but it might be wise to change course in order to leave the vessel’s track at a faster rate.

Obviously a vessel progressing more or less along your track presents considerable risk. It will appear virtually bow-on all the time. Possibly the mast gap will appear to waver from one side to another. Don’t worry! From ½ to ¾ nail size the masts will be clearly visible; you will probably be able to see the bow wave as well. If you can distinguish a mast gap by now you will also notice how one side of the bow seems larger than the other — possibly even see a little of one side of the ship. If so, it will be obvious which way to go. If you can’t, it doesn’t matter which way you go. Make a 45º change of course now which will keep the masts open on the same side; more than 45º if you are a little slow or you and the other vessel are head to head; also if you waited until ¾ nail size or bigger before giving way. The ship will pass you at about knuckle to thumb size and you will encounter a sizeable wash very shortly afterwards.

But if you were able to distinguish a mast gap at half nail size, reasoned to which side of your track the ship inclined, and took your 45º change of course in the opposite direction until the masts opened nicely and allowed the ship to pass you at about knuckle size or less, then it would just be something of interest.

You have probably visualized all this with the ship (imaginary) ahead of you. Do it again with it behind you. A vessel to the left of your track, heading right as you look at it must also cross your track, but obviously it will do so behind you. As the result of an on-going situation (as the best mumbo jumbo experts say), you must have previously crossed ahead of the vessel, hopefully having applied the Rule of Thumb, thus ensuring that the vessel will pass sufficiently far behind to cause no problems.

Let me press home the point that if you cross ahead of a vessel at half nail size and that vessel is travelling four times as fast as you, it will appear knuckle size as it crosses your track, possibly a little bigger shortly afterwards. Why? *

What of a vessel abaft the beam, showing bow and heading left from left of your track as you look at it. Watch the masts from twice nail tip size most attentively. This vessel might have already crossed your track, so far behind that you did not even notice it; if so it will soon be quite obvious that it is heading away from your track and should cause no problems. It could be the case, however, that this ship, travelling several times faster than you, might still cross ahead of your track. Such vessels are a high risk. You identify them by observing the masts; their aspect from nail tip size to half nail will barely change. How far abaft the beam is the vessel? If more than 60º by guess, I suggest you consider it to be progressing more or less along your track and act accordingly. You should already know for how few minutes this will inconvenience you.

If less than 60º abaft the beam, your least inconvenient plan might well be to stop! This allows the vessel to pass ahead as much further as the distance you would have travelled had you not stopped. I know this idea can be an anathema to some people, so I will give an alternative, not out of generosity, but because it only works when you are already quite sure that the ship will pass ahead, and this is not always easy to determine. But wait a minute! Not easy to determine? There must be some difficulty. Yes — there is a collision risk! The vessel is still more or less bow-on, the mast gap not changing appreciably — remember? I told you it would be at the sharp end! If the ship has seen you it might hoot; if so you should make a large change of course away from its track at once. DO NOT TRY TO PASS AHEAD!

If it does not hoot (the only way you can be sure you have been seen is when they do) you may continue on course until the vessel is about ¾ nail size. Check to see if there is a mast gap and wean your course so as to widen it until you are confident the vessel will pass clear at about nail to knuckle size. If the mast gap is not too clear at ¾ nail size (unlikely), you are probably going to pass close ahead of the vessel. If this does not become obvious within the next 10 to 20 seconds, make a large change of course away from its track at once — 90°! Following this technique will eventually result in your being hooted at, thus widening your experience.

If such a vessel is also to leeward of you and you leave your course change too late, you may well find it necessary to sail back the way you came for a while. This is enough to make most people wish they had just stopped!

You will automatically pass under the stern of any vessel which crosses ahead of you, and you have already been advised how close to go. Knuckle size is plenty big enough for starters and should be safe as you meet any wash on your bow. You can build upon your experience from there, learning which type of vessels of which to be most wary.

Like all rules of thumb, mine is rough and ready, but unless you are severely deformed, it won’t bring you any harm. Your own thumb/arm ratio can be your yardstick to distance off. In Part Three I shall remark on some minor exceptions to the rule.

Did you answer the problem in Part One? Yes — that rule holds good for any tide condition!

This subtle question is your next problem! (Remember the question? Why, if you cross ahead of a vessel at half nail size, and that vessel is travelling four times as fast as you, will it appear knuckle size as it crosses your track, possibly a little bigger shortly afterwards?)

PART THREE

“Hold her on as steady a course as you can, Liz, there’s a ship coming up from behind.” I was resting in the off duty position, on the bottom boards, my back resting against a sloping board lodged against the rowing thwart. Not yet tired enough to sleep, I kept look-out astern while Lizzie steered by compass and kept look-out ahead. The Mersey Mariner, 2,200 tons, 260’ long, was now aiming at us astern and, as I had observed her change course, I was fairly confident we had been seen. Eight miles offshore, a junk rigged 16’ dinghy isn’t something you see every day in the Irish Sea!

“Don’t look back, Liz, I’ll do that; just keep her steady.” I could see the men in the bridge house looking down at us. The frothy snarl at the MM’s bow changed by magic into a white toothed chuckling grin as she slowed her speed and approached close under our port quarter. A smiling figure stepped out; I waved; he watched a few moments, then made a long, horizontal, undulating sweep of his arm, followed immediately by a short negating shake of his hand. There would be no wash to trouble us. A final wave and our new friend stepped back inside and his ship turned around to port and headed back to re-join her pals clustered at Liverpool Bar.

Unless you were in shoal waters, few commercial vessels would have any trouble running you down if they wished to, and for most a near miss would probably be good enough to swamp your dinghy. I have known a mere IoW ferry to slow as it passed me rather closer than I should have allowed it to, but one would be more than foolish to rely on such consideration. It is seldom one can be sure one has been seen.

Some commercial vessels are so fast that you will have very little time to remove yourself from their path. Hovercraft, hydrofoils and other fast ferry vessels keep a very good look-out ahead, and are relatively shoal draft vessels producing a fairly harmless wash. My experience of these vessels in the crowded waters of the Solent is that they pass close-to without causing great inconvenience. However, I still avoid them whenever possible, and take care not to dilly-dally in the vicinity of the terminals.

The huge cross-Channel hovercraft obviously merit a lot more consideration than the small ones which started the first ever hovercraft service in Southampton, just a few yards from another locally extinct monster — the chain ferries. Chain ferries ply ponderously back and forth, unable to veer from their fixed path. It is unwise to cross ahead of a chain ferry which is moving, because the cables which stretch between it and its destination will be taut and rising towards the surface as it progresses. If it is moving, cross behind, midway between the shore and the ferry.

Whilst I was glad to see them go, it is a sobering thought that the still young Itchen Bridge which replaced them has probably already cost more lives than the chain ferries ever did; last year it even sank a yacht — with a little help from the vandals who dropped a manhole cover onto the boat some 90’ below. It perforated both deck and hull and the yacht sank immediately. Progress is not always benignly beneficient.

There are plans to introduce a Continental type ferry service to the IoW this year using high speed catamarans. I wonder if they will have the ability to stop as quickly as does the hovercraft?

Any commercial vessel engaged in specialist activities like dredging or cable laying should be given as wide a berth as a faster moving ship. Although slower moving, they would be extremely reluctant to diverge from their chosen course. The slower speed will give you more time to exercise your judgement and eliminates all wash problems.

The RN has all types of vessels, and they often do the unexpected, but they are usually heavily manned and I have always felt that they are more likely to notice small craft. You will probably notice that most of their war ships are smaller and faster than the merchant vessels you meet.

The masts of some small ferries are of equal height, but at night the lights will be conventional; low one at the front. You will, however, be quite unable to use my Rule of Thumb. There may be some reduction of small ferry traffic at night, and the reduction in pleasure craft is very marked, but ‘big stuff’ works 24 hours a day.

One way a dinghy cruiser could avoid having night sailing experience forced upon him before he is ready would be to cruise to a small haven or anchorage with a view over a busy stretch of water, and watch the lights go by and try to identify those which don’t appear on the chart. A rear cycle lamp by which to read the chart helps to retain your night vision.

When you think you have got it sussed, pop out for a couple of hours to the edge of the main channel; you won’t find it so easy to identify as you expect; and getting back to your original spot will be more trouble than it was in the afternoon.

Under sail or oars your lighting obligations can be fulfilled by a torch. A front cycle lamp WILL NOT DO! If you use it in conjunction with commercial shipping it is likely to be a tense situation because the rules require it to be used in time to prevent collision. This would indicate that you no longer have complete control over the situation.

Beginners to dinghy sailing at night will find that a quick glance around the horizon is not enough to assure oneself that all is well. Much more time is needed to ensure spotting of buoys and keeping track of your position and that of any other traffic. On the plus side, there is little else to look at. When I sail in Southampton Water at night I keep out of the main channel whenever possible, and cross it as quickly as possible when I can’t (see Part One). This means that most encounters are with small craft. As I am not usually able to show red and green lights (I only fix them if I intend to motor), my usual system is to keep clear of vessels ahead, and to stick a good light over the stern when something is approaching from behind. Otherwise I make good use of my torch and lungs too if necessary.

Incidentally, after many years of deliberate night sailing, I still feel uncomfortable using my Seagull outboard at night. The moment it starts up I am deprived of my sense of hearing. It also detracts from one of the chief pleasures of night sailing, listening to the birds who also seem to work 24 hours a day.

At night in a busy port the lights of shipping can be difficult to identify against a background of shore lights. Things are much easier to handle if you are familiar with the place in daylight. These days a ship at anchor often shows very bright working lights in addition to its anchor lights, which will be dim by comparison. Some very fast vessels show flashing orange lights. In the last 20 years there has been constant change in the regulations regarding lights. Most people bumble along picking it up as they go. Don’t waste your time reading old copies of collision rules or buoyage systems; if you are that keen, get the latest editions.

Ports and shipping lanes abound in floating rubbish which is much harder to see at night, as is the approach of a rogue wave or wash from a ship. Some ports have rules about how close pleasure craft may approach a moored vessel. If accosted, be polite and say you did not know. All in all, however, night sailing in the vicinity of shipping is a much lesser hurdle than one’s early encounters with bad weather.

In bad visibility the advice in Part One holds sway over my Rule of Thumb every time. Crossing a busy channel in bad visibility is a much higher risk than in good. If you have any doubts at all, DO NOT ATTEMPT IT ON AN OUTWARD PASSAGE. My own experience has taught me that nothing I can say will stop anyone trying it to get back home! Whilst I cannot prove it, I don’t believe that all commercial traffic blow fog horns according to the regulations. One’s first warning may well be the sound of engines — this is very testing on the nerves!

As like as not, your speed and manoeuvrability will be affected by the conditions which affect the visibility; if your speed is less than half your best, you should exercise greater caution and take avoiding action sooner than advised with my Rule of Thumb.

In choppy conditions, the first sign of the approach of a commercial vessel may well be a particularly persistent white horse kicked up by the bow of a heavily laden barge or other low vessel. Unless conditions are really bad, the larger stuff shows up pretty well. We are probably even more difficult to see than usual, and might have trouble tacking or gybing.

How can you use my Rule of Thumb in ports or rivers and narrow channels? It is not so easy; sometimes you will have to break it. Salvation comes with the knowledge that ‘big stuff’ will be travelling slower than usual. This compensates in part for being nearer than advised in Part Two. Another plus factor in ports or rivers is that safe temporary hideaways might well be nearer to hand. If a vessel is attended by tugs, be sure to keep clear of these as well. A tug nose-on to the side of a ship and apparently not moving at all can produce unnerving cross-currents several times its own length. High tide is the ‘rush hour’ in port, and sometimes small local ships will take the odd short cut, just like us! Keep a good look-out!

Did you answer the problem in Part Two? It is of course the overtaking vessel that can do this, hence my suggestion to consider ‘big stuff’ more than 60º abaft the beam and in the high risk category as travelling along your track. Out at sea you might reason that, as they are not restricted in any way, overtaking vessels should keep clear whatever their size. I wouldn’t!